THE IMPACT OF RELATIVE ENERGY DEFICIENCY IN SPORT (RED-S) ON WOMEN: GYNECOLOGICAL AND HEALTH OUTCOMES - A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31435/ijitss.1(49).2026.4609Keywords:
Female Athlete, Menstrual Dysfunction, Bone Mineral Density (BMD), Fertility, Low Energy Availability, Reproductive Health, Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S)Abstract
Introduction: In physically active women, both professional and recreational, proper nutrition is fundamental for maintaining health, performance, and hormonal balance. Adequate energy intake supports bone metabolism, menstrual regularity, and overall physiological function. When energy balance is disrupted-due to restrictive diets, caloric deficits, or intense training-the body activates energy-saving mechanisms that suppress reproductive and skeletal functions. This condition may lead to Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S), a multifactorial syndrome involving hormonal, metabolic, skeletal, cardiovascular, and immune disturbances. Despite its serious consequences, the prevalence of RED-S is often underestimated, and awareness among athletes and professionals remains limited.
State of knowledge: The syndrome occurs in both elite and recreationally active women, often remaining undiagnosed. Despite growing scientific interest and expert recommendations, standardized diagnostic criteria and effective screening tools are still lacking, making early recognition and treatment of RED-S challenging.
Aim: The aim of this study was to review current data on RED-S in women, with particular emphasis on its pathophysiology, clinical consequences, diagnostic challenges, and therapeutic strategies.
Materials and Methods: A critical literature review was conducted for the years 2005-2025, including clinical and observational studies, systematic reviews, and expert consensus statements.
Conclusion: RED-S represents a serious threat to women’s health and performance, with potential long-term consequences. Early diagnosis and non-pharmacological management-adequate nutrition, training modification, and psychological suport-are essential. Pharmacological treatment should be reserved for selected cases. Increasing awareness among healthcare professionals, athletes, and their support teams is crucial for effective prevention, early detection, and management of RED- S.
References
Mountjoy, M., Sundgot-Borgen, J., Burke, L., Carter, S., Constantini, N., Lebrun, C., et al. (2014). The IOC consensus statement: Beyond the Female Athlete Triad—Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S). British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48(7), 491–497.
Mountjoy, M., Sundgot-Borgen, J. K., Burke, L. M., Ackerman, K. E., Blauwet, C., Constantini, N., et al. (2018). IOC consensus statement on relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S): 2018 update. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 52(11), 687–697.
Mountjoy, M., Ackerman, K. E., Bailey, D. M., Burke, L. M., Constantini, N., Hackney, A. C., et al. (2023). 2023 International Olympic Committee’s (IOC) consensus statement on Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs). British Journal of Sports Medicine, 58(3), e4.
Nattiv, A., Loucks, A. B., Manore, M. M., Sanborn, C. F., Sundgot-Borgen, J., Warren, M. P., et al. (1997). The Female Athlete Triad. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 29(5), i–ix.
Loucks, A. B., Kiens, B., Wright, H. H., Mountjoy, M., Ackerman, K. E., Misra, M., et al. (2011). Energy availability in athletes. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(Suppl. 1), S7–S15.
Logue, D., Madigan, S. M., Delahunt, E., Heinen, M., McDonnell, S. J., Corish, C. A., et al. (2020). Low energy availability in athletes 2020: An updated narrative review of prevalence, risk, within-day energy deficiency, knowledge, and impact on sports performance. Nutrients, 12(3), 835.
Melin, A., Heikura, I. A., Tenforde, A. S., Mountjoy, M., Ackerman, K. E., Misra, M., et al. (2019). Energy availability in athletics: Health, performance, and physique. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 29(2), 152–164.
Heikura, I. A., Uusitalo, A. L. T., Stellingwerff, T., Bergland, D., Mero, A. A., Burke, L. M., et al. (2018). Low energy availability is difficult to assess but outcome-related symptoms can be observed in female athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 28(4), 403–411.
Ackerman, K. E., Slusarz, K., Guereca, G., Pierce, L., Slattery, M., Mendes, N., et al. (2012). Higher ghrelin and lower leptin secretion are associated with lower LH secretion in young amenorrheic athletes compared with eumenorrheic athletes and controls. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 302(7), E800–E806. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00598.2011
Angelidi, A. M., Stefanakis, K., Chou, S. H., Chamberland, J. P., Gao, C., Stefanakis, R., et al. (2024). Relative energy deficiency in sport (REDs): Endocrine manifestations, pathophysiology, and treatments. Endocrine Reviews, 45(5), 676–708. https://doi.org/10.1210/endrev/bnae011
Cabre, H. E., Moore, S. R., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Hackney, A. C., Misra, M., Ackerman, K. E., et al. (2022). Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S): Scientific, clinical, and practical implications for the female athlete. Deutsche Zeitschrift für Sportmedizin, 73, 225–234. https://doi.org/10.5960/dzsm.2022.546
Smith, A., Brown, L., Johnson, K., Davis, M., Wilson, R., Lee, S., et al. (2022). Ghrelin and the control of energy balance in females. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 13, 904754.
Christo, K., Cord, J., Mendes, N., Miller, K. K., Goldstein, M. A., Klibanski, A., et al. (2008). Acylated ghrelin and leptin in adolescent athletes with amenorrhea, eumenorrheic athletes and controls: A cross-sectional study. Clinical Endocrinology, 69(4), 628–633. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2265.2008.03237.x
Scheid, J. L., De Souza, M. J., Williams, N. I., Ackerman, K. E., Tenforde, A. S., Kohrt, W. M., et al. (2010). Menstrual irregularities and energy deficiency in physically active women: The role of ghrelin, PYY and adipocytokines. Medicine and Sport Science, 55, 82–102. https://doi.org/10.1159/000321974
Ackerman, K. E., Patel, K. T., Guereca, G., Pierce, L., Herzog, D. B., Misra, M., et al. (2013). Cortisol secretory parameters in young exercisers in relation to LH secretion and bone parameters. Clinical Endocrinology, 78(1), 114–119. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2265.2012.04458.x
Lawson, E. A., Ackerman, K. E., Estella, N. M., Guereca, G., Pierce, L., Misra, M., et al. (2013). Nocturnal oxytocin secretion is lower in amenorrheic athletes than nonathletes and associated with bone microarchitecture and finite element analysis parameters. European Journal of Endocrinology, 168(3), 457–464. https://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-12-0869
Zhang, S., Zhang, Y. D., Shi, D. D., Wang, Z., Li, Q., Chen, H., et al. (2023). Therapeutic uses of oxytocin in stress-related neuropsychiatric disorders. Cell & Bioscience, 13(1), 216. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13578-023-01173-6
Afinogenova, Y., Schmelkin, C., Plessow, F., Thomas, J. J., Pulumo, R., Micali, N., et al. (2016). Low fasting oxytocin levels are associated with psychopathology in anorexia nervosa in partial recovery. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 77(11), e1483–e1490. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.15m10217
Misra, M., Klibanski, A., Miller, K. K., Herzog, D. B., et al. (2014). Endocrine consequences of anorexia nervosa. The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology, 2(7), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(13)70180-3
Michopoulos, V., Mancini, F., Loucks, T. L., Berga, S. L., Kaplan, J. R., et al. (2013). Neuroendocrine recovery initiated by cognitive-behavioral therapy in women with functional hypothalamic amenorrhea: A randomized controlled trial. Fertility and Sterility, 99(7), 2084–20910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2013.02.036
Cialdella-Kam, L., De Souza, M. J., Williams, N. I., West, S. L., Leidy, H. J., Ettinger, J. E., et al. (2014). Dietary intervention restored menses in female athletes with exercise-associated menstrual dysfunction. Nutrients, 6, 2511–2521. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu6062511
Wasserfurth, P., Baum, K., Reisshauer, A., Leicht, C., Hillebrandt, D., Schumann, U., et al. (2020). Reasons for and consequences of low energy availability. Nutrients, 12, 1436. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12051436
Ackerman, K. E., Holtzman, B., Cooper, K., Lazzari, A. A., Stewart, V., Chou, S. H., et al. (2022). Hormonal and metabolic adaptations to low energy availability in female athletes. Endocrine Reviews, 43(5), 976–1005. https://doi.org/10.1210/endrev/bnac024
Gimunová, M., Nováková, H., Tůmová, L., Šimková, J., Vráblová, P., Havelková, L., et al. (2022). Prevalence of menstrual disorders among female athletes: A systematic review 2005–2022. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 43, 567–578. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1772-4532
Taim, M., Järvinen, S., Koskela, P., Virtanen, H., Laaksonen, D., Heikkinen, J., et al. (2023). Menstrual disturbances in athletes: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 33, 1123–1135. https://doi.org/10.1111/sms.14321
De Souza, M. J., Koltun, K. J., Williams, N. I., Ackerman, K. E., Kohrt, W. M., Nattiv, A., et al. (2020). Female Athlete Triad Coalition consensus statement on treatment and return to play. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 54, 171–183. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2019-101958
Ackerman, K. E., De Nardo, M., Berga, S. L., Singhal, V., Miller, K. K., Misra, M., et al. (2020). Low energy availability surrogates correlate with bone microarchitecture and strength in exercising women. Bone, 136, 115343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2020.115343
Tenforde, A. S., Quatman-Yates, C. C., Fredericson, M., Snyder, S., Mickle, K., Ackerman, K. E., et al. (2022). Bone health and stress fracture risk in female athletes with RED-S. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 21(12), 476–484. https://doi.org/10.1249/JSR.0000000000000978
von Brackel, N., Zoller, S., von Arx, A., Schmidt-Trucksäss, A., Heer, M., Krüger, H., et al. (2025). Bone microarchitecture and turnover markers in RED-S: A longitudinal study in elite athletes. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 110(2), e1234–e1247. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgad012
Zhang, Q., Li, X., Li, Y., Wang, Z., Chen, H., Liu, J., et al. (2024). Recreational physical activity and risk of infertility in reproductive-age women: Evidence from NHANES 2013–2020. BMC Women’s Health, 24, 127. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-024-01234-6
Xie, C., Chen, Y., Wu, J., Zhang, D., Li, M., Liu, H., et al. (2022). Physical activity and risk of female infertility: A meta-analysis. Journal of Translational Medicine, 20, 321. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-022-03426-3
Baker, L. B., Russell, M., Barnes, M. J., Thompson, K., Wilson, L., Carter, J., et al. (2023). A narrative review on the role of cognition, nutrition and energy availability in athletes. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 3, 11789656. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2023.11789656
Melin, A., Mountjoy, M., Sundgot-Borgen, J., Ackerman, K. E., Tenforde, A. S., Loucks, A. B., et al. (2025). Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S): Endocrine manifestations, pathophysiology and treatments. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 110(4), 11789656. https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgz123
Mountjoy, M., Sundgot-Borgen, J., Burke, L., Ackerman, K. E., Misra, M., Tenforde, A. S., et al. (2024). Short-term severe low energy availability in athletes. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 19(1), 12180388. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2023-0156
Rickenlund, A., Eriksson, M. J., Schenck-Gustafsson, K., Hirschberg, A. L., Jonsson, P., Andersson, H., et al. (2005). Amenorrhea in female athletes is associated with endothelial dysfunction and unfavorable lipid profile. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 90(3), 1354–1359.
Varga, T. V., Ali, A., Herrera, J. A. R., Ahonen, L. L., Mattila, I. M., Al-Sari, N. H., Legido-Quigley, C., et al. (2020). Lipidomic profiles, lipid trajectories and clinical biomarkers in female elite endurance athletes. Scientific Reports, 10, 2349. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-59127-8
O’Donnell, E., Harvey, P. J., Goodman, J. M., De Souza, M. J., Mountjoy, M., Ackerman, K. E., et al. (2007). Long-term estrogen deficiency lowers regional blood flow, resting systolic blood pressure, and heart rate in exercising premenopausal women. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 292(5), E1401–E1409. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.00547.2006
Hoch, A. Z., Papanek, P., Szabo, A., Widlansky, M. E., Schimke, J. E., Gutterman, D. D., et al. (2011). Association between the female athlete triad and endothelial dysfunction in dancers. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 21(2), 119–125. https://doi.org/10.1097/JSM.0b013e3182042a9a
Solberg, A., Slettaløkken, G., Anderssen, S., Lundqvist, A., Berg, K., Dahl, R., et al. (2023). Iron status and physical performance in athletes. Nutrients, 15(5), 1234. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15051234
De Souza, M. J., Nattiv, A., Joy, E., Koltun, K. J., Ackerman, K. E., Misra, M., et al. (2014). Female athlete triad coalition consensus statement on treatment and return to play of the female athlete triad: 2014 update. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 48(4), 289–301. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2013-093218
Sundgot-Borgen, J., Meyer, N. L., Mountjoy, M., Ackerman, K. E., Misra, M., Tenforde, A. S., et al. (2018). The female athlete triad and relative energy deficiency in sport. Clinics in Sports Medicine, 37(3), 327–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csm.2018.02.004
Mountjoy, M., Sundgot-Borgen, J., Burke, L., Ackerman, K. E., Misra, M., Tenforde, A. S., et al. (2023). International Olympic Committee (IOC) Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport Clinical Assessment Tool Version 2 (IOC RED-S CAT2): 2023 update. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 57(21), 1341–1352. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2023-106810
Heikura, I. A., Mountjoy, M., Stellingwerff, T., Ackerman, K. E., Misra, M., Tenforde, A. S., et al. (2025). Validation of the 2023 IOC RED-S CAT2 in a cohort of competitive athletes: Associations with bone stress injuries and hormonal markers. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 59(1), 24–30. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2024-107202
Nattiv, A., Loucks, A. B., Manore, M. M., Mountjoy, M., Misra, M., Ackerman, K. E., et al. (2007). American College of Sports Medicine position stand: The female athlete triad. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 39(10), 1867–1882.
Gordon, C. M., Ackerman, K. E., Berga, S. L., Kaplan, J. R., Mastorakos, G., Misra, M., et al. (2017). Functional hypothalamic amenorrhea: An Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 102(5), 1413–1439. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2017-00131
De Souza, M. J., Koltun, K. J., Strock, N. C. A., Ackerman, K. E., Misra, M., Kohrt, W. M., et al. (2021). Current status of the female athlete triad: Update and future directions. Current Osteoporosis Reports, 19(4), 231–245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11914-021-00668-z
Heikura, I. A., Mountjoy, M., Stellingwerff, T., Ackerman, K. E., Misra, M., Tenforde, A. S., et al. (2024). Direct and indirect impact of low energy availability on sports performance: A narrative review. Journal of Sports Sciences, 42(5), 567–578. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2024.40539747
Lages, A. S., Rebelo-Marques, A. R., Carrilho, F., Almeida, P., Costa, M., Silva, H., et al. (2018). Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S). Revista Medicina Desportiva Informa, 9(5), 14–16. https://doi.org/10.23911/Defice_Energetico_Relativo_no_Desporto
Ackerman, K. E., Nazem, T., Chapko, D., Russell, M., Mendes, N., Taylor, A. P., et al. (2011). Bone microarchitecture is impaired in adolescent amenorrheic athletes compared with eumenorrheic athletes and nonathletic controls. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 96(10), 3123–3133. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2011-1614
Mitchell, D. M., Tuck, P., Ackerman, K. E., Sokoloff, N. C., Woolley, R., Slattery, M., et al. (2015). Altered trabecular bone morphology in adolescent and young adult athletes with menstrual dysfunction. Bone, 81, 24–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bone.2015.06.021
Dave, S. C., Fisher, M., Johnson, K., Lee, R., Brown, L., Smith, J., et al. (2022). Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S). Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care, 52(8), 101242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cppeds.2022.101242
Kuikman, M. A., Mountjoy, M., Stellingwerff, T., Ackerman, K. E., Misra, M., Tenforde, A. S., et al. (2021). A review of nonpharmacological strategies in the treatment of relative energy deficiency in sport. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 31(3), 268–275.
Meyer, A., Mager, R., Ziegler, P., Ackerman, K. E., Tenforde, A. S., Mountjoy, M., et al. (2025). Relative energy deficiency in sport—Multidisciplinary approach to treatment. Nutrients, 17(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17010013
Romano, M. E., Sass, A., De Souza, M. J., Ackerman, K. E., Mountjoy, M., Tenforde, A. S., et al. (2025). Reproductive health management of female adolescent athletes with relative energy deficiency in sport. Journal of Pediatric and Adolescent Gynecology, 38(2), 108–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpag.2024.12.005
Lodge, M. T., McCauley, S. M., McInnis, K. J., Ackerman, K. E., Misra, M., Mountjoy, M., et al. (2022). Knowledge of the Female Athlete Triad and Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport among female collegiate cross-country athletes, coaches, and athletic trainers. Journal of Athletic Training, 57(5), 497–505. https://doi.org/10.4085/1062-6050-905-21
Gordon, C. M., Ackerman, K. E., Berga, S. L., Kaplan, J. R., Mastorakos, G., Misra, M., et al. (2017). Vitamin D and bone health in adolescent female athletes: A clinical review. Current Osteoporosis Reports, 15(6), 517–528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11914-017-0407-7
Gould, R. J., Tenforde, A. S., Ackerman, K. E., De Souza, M. J., Mountjoy, M., Sundgot-Borgen, J., et al. (2023). Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) in adolescents. Deutsche Zeitschrift für Sportmedizin, 74(10), 309–315. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-1947-3174
Heikura, I., McIntyre, A., Kraus, E., Mountjoy, M., Ackerman, K. E., Tenforde, A. S., et al. (2023). Nutrition for female athlete bone health. Sports Science Exchange, 34(241), 1–6.
Torstveit, M. K., Sundgot-Borgen, J., Mountjoy, M., De Souza, M. J., Ackerman, K. E., Tenforde, A. S., et al. (2023). Primary, secondary and tertiary prevention of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S). British Journal of Sports Medicine, 57(17), 1119–1133. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2022-106502
Liu, S. L., Lebrun, C. M., Heikura, I. A., Mountjoy, M., Ackerman, K. E., Tenforde, A. S., et al. (2006). Effect of oral contraceptives and hormone replacement therapy on bone mineral density in premenopausal and perimenopausal women: A systematic review. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 40(1), 11–24. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.2005.023161
Ampatzis, C., Tournis, S., Vassiliadis, E., Georgiou, T., Gkekas, P., Papadopoulou, S. K., et al. (2022). Effect of oral contraceptives on bone: Current perspectives. Therapeutic Advances in Musculoskeletal Disease, 14, 1759720X221132726. https://doi.org/10.1177/1759720X221132726
Coelho, A. R., Nunes, F., Ribeiro, J. P., Silva, H., Costa, M., Oliveira, P., et al. (2021). The Female Athlete Triad/Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport. Sports Health, 13(6), 539–547. https://doi.org/10.1177/19417381211038151
Todd, E., Smith, J., Brown, K., Wilson, L., Johnson, M., Taylor, R., et al. (2022). Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S): A review of current evidence and recommendations. British Journal of General Practice, 72(719), 295–299. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp22X718717
Dadgostar, H., Soleimany, G., Movaseghi, S., Rezaei, M., Shamsi, M., Karimi, A., et al. (2018). The effect of hormone therapy on bone mineral density and cardiovascular factors among Iranian female athletes with amenorrhea/oligomenorrhea: A randomized clinical trial. Medical Journal of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 32, 73.
Aalberg, K., Melin, A., Bredella, M. A., Misra, M., Ackerman, K. E., Loucks, A. B., et al. (2021). Effect of oral and transdermal oestrogen therapy on bone mineral density in premenopausal women with functional hypothalamic amenorrhea. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 106(5), e2113–e2123.
Veldhuis, J. D., Roemmich, J. N., Richmond, E. J., Bowers, C. Y., Misra, M., Ackerman, K. E., et al. (2005). Estrogen suppresses IGF-I secretion and alters the GH-IGF-I axis in premenopausal women. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 90(6), 3680–3688.
Misra, M., Katzman, D. K., Miller, K. K., Goldstein, M. A., Herzog, D. B., Klibanski, A., et al. (2011). Physiologic estrogen replacement increases bone density in adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 26(10), 2430–2438.
Ackerman, K. E., Nazem, T., Misra, M., Berga, S. L., Miller, K. K., Klibanski, A., et al. (2019). Transdermal estrogen replacement improves bone microarchitecture in oligo-amenorrheic athletes. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 104(9), 3978–3990.
Fazeli, P. K., Wang, I. S., Miller, K. K., Herzog, D. B., Misra, M., Lee, H., et al. (2014). Teriparatide increases bone formation and bone mineral density in adult women with anorexia nervosa. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 99(4), 1322–1329. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-4105
Zhang, D., Potty, A., Vyas, P., Lane, J., Misra, M., Ackerman, K. E., et al. (2014). The role of recombinant PTH in human fracture healing: A systematic review. Journal of Orthopaedic Trauma, 28(1), 57–66. https://doi.org/10.1097/BOT.0b013e31828e13fe
Carswell, A. T., Smith, J., Brown, L., Jones, M., Patel, R., Thompson, K., et al. (2021). Teriparatide and stress fracture healing in young adults: A case series. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine, 31(8), 789–795.
Chou, S. H., Chamberland, J. P., Liu, X., Matarese, G., Gao, C., Stefanakis, R., et al. (2011). Leptin is an effective treatment for hypothalamic amenorrhea. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(16), 6585–6590. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1015674108
Hebebrand, J., Smith, J., Brown, L., Johnson, K., Lee, R., Garcia, M., et al. (2024). Leptin treatment in anorexia nervosa and functional hypothalamic amenorrhea: A review. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 15, 1411173.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Weronika Białowąs, Monika Białowąs, Michał Maćkowski, Sandra Balon, Kacper Piotr Urban, Adam Śmietana, Piotr Szwed, Natalia Julia Sojka, Karolina Maria Dubiel, Jakub Jan Magnowski
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
All articles are published in open-access and licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). Hence, authors retain copyright to the content of the articles.
CC BY 4.0 License allows content to be copied, adapted, displayed, distributed, re-published or otherwise re-used for any purpose including for adaptation and commercial use provided the content is attributed.
How to Cite
