THE INFLUENCE OF MATERNAL NUTRITION DURING PREGNANCY ON CHILDHOOD OBESITY RISK
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31435/ijitss.1(49).2026.4617Keywords:
Obesity, Pregnancy, NutritionAbstract
Childhood obesity is an urgent global concern. Growing evidence suggests its roots often extend back to prenatal development. This review examines how maternal nutrition influences the risk of childhood obesity through fetal metabolic programming. A literature search (October–December 2025) was conducted using PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. It identified peer-reviewed studies on maternal diet, metabolic pathways, and long-term offspring health. Maternal macronutrient imbalances, such as excessive energy intake, high glycemic load, high saturated fat intake, or inadequate protein, were associated with altered fetal hormonal regulation. They also led to changes in placental nutrient transfer and epigenetic modifications. These changes affect insulin sensitivity and adipose tissue development. Micronutrient deficiencies, especially vitamin D, folate, and B12, were linked to disrupted metabolic signaling. They were also linked to adverse growth patterns. Maternal conditions, including obesity and gestational diabetes, further increased fetal susceptibility to obesity. This occurs by promoting hyperinsulinemia and adiposity before birth. Other factors, such as maternal genetics, gut microbiota, and early postnatal feeding, also interact with prenatal nutrition to shape long-term outcomes. The evidence highlights pregnancy as a key window for prevention. More longitudinal studies and biomarker-based dietary assessment are needed to support tailored nutritional guidance.
References
Zhang, X., Liu, J., Ni, Y., Yi, C., Fang, Y., Ning, Q., Shen, B., Zhang, K., Liu, Y., Yang, L., Li, K., Liu, Y., Huang, R., & Li, Z. (2024). Global prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 178(8), 800–813. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2024.1576
Cristian, A., Tarry-Adkins, J. L., & Aiken, C. E. (2023). The uterine environment and childhood obesity risk: Mechanisms and predictions. Current Nutrition Reports, 12(3), 416–425. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-023-00482-z
Rasmussen, L., Knorr, S., Antoniussen, C. S., Bruun, J. M., Ovesen, P. G., Fuglsang, J., & Kampmann, U. (2021). The impact of lifestyle, diet and physical activity on epigenetic changes in the offspring: A systematic review. Nutrients, 13(8), 2821. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082821
Zhu, Z., Cao, F., & Li, X. (2019). Epigenetic programming and fetal metabolic programming. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 10, 764. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2019.00764
Lesseur, C., & Chen, J. (2018). Adverse maternal metabolic intrauterine environment and placental epigenetics: Implications for fetal metabolic programming. Current Environmental Health Reports, 5(4), 531–543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-018-0217-9
Nugent, B. M., & Bale, T. L. (2015). The omniscient placenta: Metabolic and epigenetic regulation of fetal programming. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 39, 28–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yfrne.2015.09.001
Khammarnia, M., Ansari-Moghaddam, A., Kakhki, F. G., Clark, C. C. T., & Barahouei, F. B. (2024). Maternal macronutrient and energy intake during pregnancy: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health, 24(1), 478. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-17862-x
Bokor, S., Csölle, I., Felső, R., Vass, R. A., Funke, S., Ertl, T., & Molnár, D. (2024). Dietary nutrients during gestation cause obesity and related metabolic changes by altering DNA methylation in the offspring. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 15, 1287255. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2024.1287255
Kawai, T., Jwa, S. C., Ogawa, K., Tanaka, H., Aoto, S., Kamura, H., Morisaki, N., Fujiwara, T., & Hata, K. (2025). Maternal vitamin D deficiency is a risk factor for infants’ epigenetic gestational age acceleration at birth in Japan: A cohort study. Nutrients, 17(2), 368. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17020368
Wen, J., Hong, Q., Wang, X., et al. (2018). The effect of maternal vitamin D deficiency during pregnancy on body fat and adipogenesis in rat offspring. Scientific Reports, 8, 365. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-18770-4
Bokor, S., Csölle, I., Felső, R., Vass, R. A., Funke, S., Ertl, T., & Molnár, D. (2024). Dietary nutrients during gestation cause obesity and related metabolic changes by altering DNA methylation in the offspring. Frontiers in Endocrinology, 15, 1287255. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2024.1287255
Al Bekai, E., Beaini, C. E., Kalout, K., Safieddine, O., Semaan, S., Sahyoun, F., Ghadieh, H. E., Azar, S., Kanaan, A., & Harb, F. (2025). The hidden impact of gestational diabetes: Unveiling offspring complications and long-term effects. Life, 15(3), 440. https://doi.org/10.3390/life15030440
Burlina, S., Dalfrà, M. G., & Lapolla, A. (2019). Short- and long-term consequences for offspring exposed to maternal diabetes: A review. The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine, 32(4), 687–694. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767058.2017.1387893
Franzago, M., Fraticelli, F., Stuppia, L., & Vitacolonna, E. (2019). Nutrigenetics, epigenetics and gestational diabetes: Consequences in mother and child. Epigenetics, 14(3), 215–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/15592294.2019.1582277
Scheidl, T. B., Brightwell, A. L., Easson, S. H., & Thompson, J. A. (2023). Maternal obesity and programming of metabolic syndrome in the offspring: Searching for mechanisms in the adipocyte progenitor pool. BMC Medicine, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-023-02730-z
Xue, L., Chen, X., Sun, J., Fan, M., Qian, H., Li, Y., & Wang, L. (2024). Maternal dietary carbohydrate and pregnancy outcomes: Quality over quantity. Nutrients, 16(14), 2269. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16142269
Jovandaric, M. Z., Babic, S., Raus, M., & Medjo, B. (2023). The importance of metabolic and environmental factors in the occurrence of oxidative stress during pregnancy. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(15), 11964. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241511964
Fan, M., Chu, Y., Zheng, Y., Zhang, Z., & Hou, M. (2025). Association of pregnancy diet with metabolic adverse outcomes in pregnant women and their children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism, 81(3), 123–140. https://doi.org/10.1159/000543423
Yisahak, S. F., Mumford, S. L., Grewal, J., Li, M., Zhang, C., Grantz, K. L., & Hinkle, S. N. (2021). Maternal diet patterns during early pregnancy in relation to neonatal outcomes. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 114(1), 358–367. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqab019
Meulenbroeks, D., Otten, E., Smeets, S., Groeneveld, L., Jonkers, D., Eussen, S., Scheepers, H., & Gubbels, J. (2024). The association of a vegan diet during pregnancy with maternal and child outcomes: A systematic review. Nutrients, 16(19), 3329. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16193329
Martins, M. C., Trujillo, J., Freitas-Vilela, A. A., Farias, D. R., Rosado, E. L., Struchiner, C. J., & Kac, G. (2018). Associations between obesity candidate gene polymorphisms (FTO, MC4R, LEP and LEPR) and dietary intake in pregnant women. The British Journal of Nutrition, 120(4), 454–463. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114518001423
Wright, L., Shireby, G., Morris, T. T., Davies, N. M., & Bann, D. (2025). The association between parental BMI and offspring adiposity: A genetically informed analysis of trios. PLoS Genetics, 21(8), e1011775. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1011775
Sharp, G. C., Lawlor, D. A., Richmond, R. C., Fraser, A., Simpkin, A., Suderman, M., et al. (2015). Maternal pre-pregnancy BMI and gestational weight gain, offspring DNA methylation and later offspring adiposity. International Journal of Epidemiology, 44(4), 1288–1304. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyv042
Stanislawski, M. A., Dabelea, D., Wagner, B. D., Sontag, M. K., Lozupone, C. A., & Eggesbø, M. (2017). Pre-pregnancy weight, gestational weight gain, and the gut microbiota of mothers and their infants. Microbiome, 5(1), 113. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-017-0332-0
Kimura, I., Miyamoto, J., Ohue-Kitano, R., Watanabe, K., Yamada, T., Onuki, M., et al. (2020). Maternal gut microbiota in pregnancy influences offspring metabolic phenotype in mice. Science, 367(6481), eaaw8429. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw8429
Nagore González, C., Iglesia Altaba, I., Guillén Sebastián, C., Alvarez Sauras, M. L., García Enguita, S., Moreno, L. A., & Rodríguez, G. (2025). Mediating effect of infant rapid weight gain on the association between exclusive breastfeeding and the risk of obesity later in life. Pediatric Obesity, 20(10), e70039. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijpo.70039
Zheng, M., Hesketh, K. D., Vuillermin, P., Dodd, J., Wen, L. M., Baur, L. A., et al. (2023). Understanding the pathways between prenatal and postnatal factors and overweight outcomes in early childhood. International Journal of Obesity, 47(7), 574–582. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366-023-01301-9
Krzeczkowski, J. E., Boylan, K., Arbuckle, T. E., Muckle, G., Poliakova, N., Séguin, J. R., et al. (2020). Maternal pregnancy diet quality is directly associated with autonomic nervous system function in 6-month-old offspring. The Journal of Nutrition, 150(2), 267–275. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/nxz228
Catalano, P. M., & Shankar, K. (2017). Obesity and pregnancy: Mechanisms of short term and long term adverse consequences for mother and child. BMJ, 356. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j1
Alves-Santos, N. H., Cocate, P. G., Benaim, C., Farias, D. R., Emmett, P. M., & Kac, G. (2019). Prepregnancy dietary patterns and their association with perinatal outcomes. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 119(9), 1439–1451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2019.02.016
Cano-Ibáñez, N., Martínez-Galiano, J. M., Amezcua-Prieto, C., Olmedo-Requena, R., Bueno-Cavanillas, A., & Delgado-Rodríguez, M. (2020). Maternal dietary diversity and risk of small for gestational age newborn. Clinical Nutrition, 39(6), 1943–1950. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2019.08.019
Martínez-Galiano, J. M., Amezcua-Prieto, C., Salcedo-Bellido, I., González-Mata, G., Bueno-Cavanillas, A., & Delgado-Rodríguez, M. (2018). Maternal dietary consumption of legumes, vegetables and fruit during pregnancy. BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 18(1), 486. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12884-018-2123-4
Amezcua-Prieto, C., Martínez-Galiano, J. M., Salcedo-Bellido, I., Olmedo-Requena, R., Bueno-Cavanillas, A., & Delgado-Rodríguez, M. (2018). Maternal seafood intake and the risk of small for gestational age newborns. BMJ Open, 8(8), e020424. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-020424
Kesary, Y., Avital, K., & Hiersch, L. (2020). Maternal plant-based diet during gestation and pregnancy outcomes. Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics, 302(4), 887–898. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00404-020-05689-x
Marshall, N. E., Abrams, B., Barbour, L. A., Catalano, P., Christian, P., Friedman, J. E., et al. (2022). The importance of nutrition in pregnancy and lactation: Lifelong consequences. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, 226(5), 607–632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2021.12.035
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Julia Kamińska, Karolina Strzelecka, Ewa Jagodzińska, Zuzanna Jabłońska, Maja Jabłońska, Antoni Plasota, Joanna Zygadło, Wiktor Milewczyk, Wojciech Michalski, Mikołaj Olczak
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
All articles are published in open-access and licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). Hence, authors retain copyright to the content of the articles.
CC BY 4.0 License allows content to be copied, adapted, displayed, distributed, re-published or otherwise re-used for any purpose including for adaptation and commercial use provided the content is attributed.
How to Cite
