ENVIRONMENTAL NOISE EXPOSURE AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE: A REVIEW OF CURRENT EVIDENCE
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.31435/ijitss.2(50).2026.5747Keywords:
Environmental Noise, Noise Pollution, Cardiovascular Disease, Cardiovascular Risk, Myocardial Infarction, HypertensionAbstract
Noise is a widespread problem worldwide, only expected to grow due to the accelerating urbanization. Although not as well-documented as air pollution, there is substantial evidence of its detrimental effects on health. The effects of noise are usually divided into auditory and non-auditory ones, with cardiovascular disease, this review's main focus, being the most prevalent and well-researched among the latter. There is strong evidence for noise being a risk factor of cardiovascular diseases such as ischemic heart disease, myocardial infarction, and stroke. As the body of evidence grows, we are beginning to better understand not only the effects but also the mechanisms by which noise impacts one’s health. Cardiovascular diseases seem to be caused, among others, by excessive oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, and an increase in stress hormones and inflammatory mediators, which in turn promote atherosclerosis and elevate blood pressure. In this review, we will first show the extent to which noise has become a prevalent problem, then discuss possible mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of noise-related cardiovascular disease, and present evidence for their association. Then, we will outline the areas of research with limited evidence or warrant further examination.
References
Ahrendt, D., Anderson, R., Dubois, H., Jungblut, J.-M., Leončikas, T., Sándor, E., & Pöntinen, L. (2018). European quality of life survey 2016. Eurofound. https://doi.org/10.2806/964014
Andersson, E. M., Ögren, M., Molnár, P., Segersson, D., Rosengren, A., & Stockfelt, L. (2020). Road traffic noise, air pollution and cardiovascular events in a Swedish cohort. Environmental Research, 185, 109446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109446
Appelhans, B. M., & Luecken, L. J. (2006). Heart rate variability as an index of regulated emotional responding. Review of General Psychology, 10(3), 229–240. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.10.3.229
Aschbacher, K., Epel, E., Wolkowitz, O. M., Prather, A. A., Puterman, E., & Dhabhar, F. S. (2012). Maintenance of a positive outlook during acute stress protects against pro-inflammatory reactivity and future depressive symptoms. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 26(2), 346–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2011.10.010
Babisch, W. (2002). The noise/stress concept, risk assessment and research needs. Noise & Health, 4(16), 1–11.
Basner, M., Babisch, W., Davis, A., Brink, M., Clark, C., Janssen, S., & Stansfeld, S. (2014). Auditory and non-auditory effects of noise on health. The Lancet, 383(9925), 1325–1332. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61613-X
Batty, M., Bennett, M. R., & Yu, E. (2022). The role of oxidative stress in atherosclerosis. Cells, 11(23), 3843. https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11233843
Baumblatt, J., Fryar, C., Gu, Q., & Ashman, J. (2024). Prevalence of total, diagnosed, and undiagnosed diabetes in adults: United States, August 2021–August 2023. National Center for Health Statistics. https://doi.org/10.15620/cdc/165794
Bolm-Audorff, U., Hegewald, J., Pretzsch, A., Freiberg, A., Nienhaus, A., & Seidler, A. (2020). Occupational noise and hypertension risk: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17), 6281. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176281
Buccelletti, E., Gilardi, E., Scaini, E., Galiuto, L., Persiani, R., Biondi, A., Basile, F., & Silveri, N. G. (2009). Heart rate variability and myocardial infarction: Systematic literature review and metanalysis. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 13(4), 299–307.
Casey, J. A., Morello-Frosch, R., Mennitt, D. J., Fristrup, K., Ogburn, E. L., & James, P. (2017). Race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status, residential segregation, and spatial variation in noise exposure in the contiguous United States. Environmental Health Perspectives, 125(7), 077017. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP898
Chen, K.-H., Su, S.-B., & Chen, K.-T. (2020). An overview of occupational noise-induced hearing loss among workers: Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and preventive measures. Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine, 25(1), 65. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12199-020-00906-0
Chobanian, A. V., Bakris, G. L., Black, H. R., Cushman, W. C., Green, L. A., Izzo, J. L., Jones, D. W., Materson, B. J., Oparil, S., Wright, J. T., Roccella, E. J., Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, & National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee. (2003). Seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Hypertension, 42(6), 1206–1252. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.HYP.0000107251.49515.c2
Collins, T. W., Nadybal, S., & Grineski, S. E. (2020). Sonic injustice: Disparate residential exposures to transport noise from road and aviation sources in the continental United States. Journal of Transport Geography, 82, 102604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2019.102604
Daiber, A., Kröller-Schön, S., Frenis, K., Oelze, M., Kalinovic, S., Vujacic-Mirski, K., Kuntic, M., Bayo Jimenez, M. T., Helmstädter, J., Steven, S., Korac, B., & Münzel, T. (2019). Environmental noise induces the release of stress hormones and inflammatory signaling molecules leading to oxidative stress and vascular dysfunction—Signatures of the internal exposome. BioFactors, 45(4), 495–506. https://doi.org/10.1002/biof.1506
Ding, T., Yan, A., & Liu, K. (2019). What is noise-induced hearing loss? British Journal of Hospital Medicine, 80(9), 525–529. https://doi.org/10.12968/hmed.2019.80.9.525
Durante, A., Mazzapicchi, A., & Baiardo Redaelli, M. (2024). Systemic and cardiac microvascular dysfunction in hypertension. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 25(24), 13294. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms252413294
Dzhambov, A. M., & Lercher, P. (2019). Road traffic noise exposure and depression/anxiety: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(21), 4134. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214134
Eze, I. C., Jeong, A., Schaffner, E., Rezwan, F. I., Ghantous, A., Foraster, M., Vienneau, D., Kronenberg, F., Herceg, Z., Vineis, P., Brink, M., Wunderli, J.-M., Schindler, C., Cajochen, C., Röösli, M., Holloway, J. W., Imboden, M., & Probst-Hensch, N. (2020). Genome-wide DNA methylation in peripheral blood and long-term exposure to source-specific transportation noise and air pollution: The SAPALDIA study. Environmental Health Perspectives, 128(6), 067003. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP6174
Fu, W., Liu, Y., Yan, S., Wen, J., Zhang, J., Zhang, P., & Zou, L. (2022). The association of noise exposure with stroke incidence and mortality: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of cohort studies. Environmental Research, 215, 114249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.114249
Fuks, K. B., Weinmayr, G., Basagaña, X., Gruzieva, O., Hampel, R., Oftedal, B., Sørensen, M., Wolf, K., Aamodt, G., Aasvang, G. M., Aguilera, I., Becker, T., Beelen, R., Brunekreef, B., Caracciolo, B., Cyrys, J., Elosua, R., Eriksen, K. T., Foraster, M., . . . Hoffmann, B. (2017). Long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and traffic noise and incident hypertension in seven cohorts of the European Study of Cohorts for Air Pollution Effects (ESCAPE). European Heart Journal, 38(13), 983–990. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehw413
Generaal, E., Timmermans, E. J., Dekkers, J. E. C., Smit, J. H., & Penninx, B. W. J. H. (2019). Not urbanization level but socioeconomic, physical and social neighbourhood characteristics are associated with presence and severity of depressive and anxiety disorders. Psychological Medicine, 49(1), 149–161. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718000612
Ghiadoni, L., Donald, A. E., Cropley, M., Mullen, M. J., Oakley, G., Taylor, M., O’Connor, G., Betteridge, J., Klein, N., Steptoe, A., & Deanfield, J. E. (2000). Mental stress induces transient endothelial dysfunction in humans. Circulation, 102(20), 2473–2478. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.102.20.2473
World Health Organization. (n.d.). Guidance on environmental noise. Retrieved April 10, 2026, from https://www.who.int/tools/compendium-on-health-and-environment/environmental-noise
Hayward, M., & Helbich, M. (2024). Environmental noise is positively associated with socioeconomically less privileged neighborhoods in the Netherlands. Environmental Research, 248, 118294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2024.118294
Heinonen-Guzejev, M., Whipp, A. M., Wang, Z., Ranjit, A., Palviainen, T., van Kamp, I., & Kaprio, J. (2023). Perceived occupational noise exposure and depression in young Finnish adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(6), 4850. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20064850
Henning, R. J. (2018). Type-2 diabetes mellitus and cardiovascular disease. Future Cardiology, 14(6), 491–509. https://doi.org/10.2217/fca-2018-0045
Htay, T., Soe, K., Lopez-Perez, A., Doan, A. H., Romagosa, M. A., & Aung, K. (2019). Mortality and cardiovascular disease in type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Current Cardiology Reports, 21(6), 45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11886-019-1133-9
Hu, X. (2025). Systematic review and meta-analysis of the association between environmental noise exposure and depression and anxiety symptoms in community-dwelling adults. Noise & Health, 27(127), 320–332. https://doi.org/10.4103/nah.nah_82_25
Kacem, I., Kahloul, M., Maoua, M., Hafsia, M., Brahem, A., Limam, M., Ghardallou, M., Brahem, F., Aroui, H., El Maalel, O., Kalboussi, H., Chatti, S., Naija, W., & Mrizek, N. (2021). Occupational noise exposure and diabetes risk. Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2021, 1804616. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/1804616
Khan, M. S., & Aouad, R. (2022). The effects of insomnia and sleep loss on cardiovascular disease. Sleep Medicine Clinics, 17(2), 193–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsmc.2022.02.008
Kraus, U., Schneider, A., Breitner, S., Hampel, R., Rückerl, R., Pitz, M., Geruschkat, U., Belcredi, P., Radon, K., & Peters, A. (2013). Individual daytime noise exposure during routine activities and heart rate variability in adults: A repeated measures study. Environmental Health Perspectives, 121(5), 607–612. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1205606
Krittanawong, C., Maitra, N. S., Qadeer, Y. K., Wang, Z., Fogg, S., Storch, E. A., Celano, C. M., Huffman, J. C., Jha, M., Charney, D. S., & Lavie, C. J. (2023). Association of depression and cardiovascular disease. The American Journal of Medicine, 136(9), 881–895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjmed.2023.04.036
Kuntic, M., Hahad, O., Al-Kindi, S., Oelze, M., Lelieveld, J., Daiber, A., & Münzel, T. (2025). Pathomechanistic synergy between particulate matter and traffic noise-induced cardiovascular damage and the classical risk factor hypertension. Antioxidants & Redox Signaling, 42(16–18), 827–847. https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2024.0659
Kupcikova, Z., Fecht, D., Ramakrishnan, R., Clark, C., & Cai, Y. S. (2021). Road traffic noise and cardiovascular disease risk factors in UK Biobank. European Heart Journal, 42(21), 2072–2084. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehab121
World Health Organization. (n.d.). Leading causes of death. Retrieved April 18, 2026, from https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/mortality-and-global-health-estimates/ghe-leading-causes-of-death
Lee, G.-S., Chen, M.-L., & Wang, G.-Y. (2010). Evoked response of heart rate variability using short-duration white noise. Autonomic Neuroscience: Basic & Clinical, 155(1–2), 94–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autneu.2009.12.008
Li, A., Martino, E., Mansour, A., & Bentley, R. (2022). Environmental noise exposure and mental health: Evidence from a population-based longitudinal study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 63(2), e39–e48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2022.02.020
Li, X., Zhou, J., Wang, M., Yang, C., & Sun, G. (2023). Cardiovascular disease and depression: A narrative review. Frontiers in Cardiovascular Medicine, 10, 1274595. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcvm.2023.1274595
Liu, C., Li, W., Chen, X., Liu, M., Zuo, L., Chen, L., Chen, H., Xu, W., & Hao, G. (2023). Dose-response association between transportation noise exposure and type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews, 39(2), e3595. https://doi.org/10.1002/dmrr.3595
Mehrdad, R., Bahabad, A. M., & Moghaddam, A. N. (2011). Relationship between exposure to industrial noise and serum lipid profile. Acta Medica Iranica, 49(11), 725–729.
Miller, M. A., & Howarth, N. E. (2023). Sleep and cardiovascular disease. Emerging Topics in Life Sciences, 7(5), 457–466. https://doi.org/10.1042/ETLS20230111
Münzel, T., Sørensen, M., Schmidt, F., Schmidt, E., Steven, S., Kröller-Schön, S., & Daiber, A. (2018). The adverse effects of environmental noise exposure on oxidative stress and cardiovascular risk. Antioxidants & Redox Signaling, 28(9), 873–908. https://doi.org/10.1089/ars.2017.7118
Park, J., Chung, S., Lee, J., Sung, J. H., Cho, S. W., & Sim, C. S. (2017). Noise sensitivity, rather than noise level, predicts the non-auditory effects of noise in community samples: A population-based survey. BMC Public Health, 17, 315. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4244-5
Paunović, K., Stojanov, V., Jakovljević, B., & Belojević, G. (2014). Thoracic bioelectrical impedance assessment of the hemodynamic reactions to recorded road-traffic noise in young adults. Environmental Research, 129, 52–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.01.001
Poitras, V. J., & Pyke, K. E. (2013). The impact of acute mental stress on vascular endothelial function: Evidence, mechanisms and importance. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 88(2), 124–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.03.019
Pyko, A., Andersson, N., Eriksson, C., de Faire, U., Lind, T., Mitkovskaya, N., Ögren, M., Östenson, C.-G., Pedersen, N. L., Rizzuto, D., Wallas, A. K., & Pershagen, G. (2019). Long-term transportation noise exposure and incidence of ischaemic heart disease and stroke: A cohort study. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 76(4), 201–207. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2018-105333
Qureshi, G. M., Seehar, G. M., Zardari, M. K., Pirzado, Z. A., & Abbasi, S. A. (2009). Study of blood lipids, cortisol and haemodynamic variations under stress in male adults. Journal of Ayub Medical College, Abbottabad: JAMC, 21(1), 158–161.
Rahmanian, M., Zare Sakhvidi, M. J., Mehrparvar, A. H., Zare Sakhvidi, F., & Dadvand, P. (2023). Association between occupational noise exposure and diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 252, 114222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2023.114222
Roswall, N., Christensen, J. S., Bidstrup, P. E., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Jensen, S. S., Tjønneland, A., & Sørensen, M. (2018). Associations between residential traffic noise exposure and smoking habits and alcohol consumption—A population-based study. Environmental Pollution, 236, 983–991. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.10.093
S, S., & C, C. (2015). Health effects of noise exposure in children. Current Environmental Health Reports, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-015-0044-1
Sa, S., & Mp, M. (2003). Noise pollution: Non-auditory effects on health. British Medical Bulletin, 68. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldg033
Seidler, A., Hegewald, J., Seidler, A. L., Schubert, M., Wagner, M., Dröge, P., Haufe, E., Schmitt, J., Swart, E., & Zeeb, H. (2017). Association between aircraft, road and railway traffic noise and depression in a large case-control study based on secondary data. Environmental Research, 152, 263–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.10.017
Shi, J., Huang, J., Guo, M., Tian, L., Wang, J., Wong, T. W., Webster, C., Leung, G. M., & Ni, M. Y. (2023). Contributions of residential traffic noise to depression and mental wellbeing in Hong Kong: A prospective cohort study. Environmental Pollution, 338, 122641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122641
Shin, S., Bai, L., Oiamo, T. H., Burnett, R. T., Weichenthal, S., Jerrett, M., Kwong, J. C., Goldberg, M. S., Copes, R., Kopp, A., & Chen, H. (2020). Association between road traffic noise and incidence of diabetes mellitus and hypertension in Toronto, Canada: A population-based cohort study. Journal of the American Heart Association: Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Disease, 9(6), e013021. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.119.013021
Smith, M. G., Cordoza, M., & Basner, M. (2022). Environmental noise and effects on sleep: An update to the WHO systematic review and meta-analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives, 130(7), 076001. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP10197
Song, Q., Guo, X., Sun, C., Su, W., Li, N., Wang, H., Liang, Q., Liang, M., Ding, X., & Sun, Y. (2022). Association between noise exposure and atrial fibrillation: A meta-analysis of cohort studies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 29(38), 57030–57039. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21456-8
Sørensen, M., Poulsen, A. H., Hvidtfeldt, U. A., Münzel, T., Thacher, J. D., Ketzel, M., Brandt, J., Christensen, J. H., Levin, G., & Raaschou-Nielsen, O. (2021). Transportation noise and risk of stroke: A nationwide prospective cohort study covering Denmark. International Journal of Epidemiology, 50(4), 1147–1156. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyab024
Stansfeld, S., Clark, C., Smuk, M., Gallacher, J., & Babisch, W. (2021). Road traffic noise, noise sensitivity, noise annoyance, psychological and physical health and mortality. Environmental Health, 20, 32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-021-00720-3
Szabo, Y. Z., Slavish, D. C., & Graham-Engeland, J. E. (2020). The effect of acute stress on salivary markers of inflammation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 88, 887–900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2020.04.078
Tabaei, S., Rashki Ghalenoo, S., Panahandeh, M., Bagheri, G., & Tabaee, S. S. (2025). The relationship between noise pollution and cardiovascular diseases: An umbrella review on meta-analyses. BMC Cardiovascular Disorders, 25, 630. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12872-025-04864-9
Thacher, J. D., Poulsen, A. H., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Hvidtfeldt, U. A., Brandt, J., Christensen, J. H., Khan, J., Levin, G., Münzel, T., & Sørensen, M. (2022a). Exposure to transportation noise and risk for cardiovascular disease in a nationwide cohort study from Denmark. Environmental Research, 211, 113106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113106
Thacher, J. D., Roswall, N., Damm, P., Hvidtfeldt, U. A., Poulsen, A. H., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Ketzel, M., Jensen, S. S., Frohn, L. M., Valencia, V. H., Münzel, T., & Sørensen, M. (2021). Transportation noise and gestational diabetes mellitus: A nationwide cohort study from Denmark. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 231, 113652. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113652
Thacher, J. D., Roswall, N., Lissåker, C., Aasvang, G. M., Albin, M., Andersson, E. M., Engström, G., Eriksson, C., Hvidtfeldt, U. A., Ketzel, M., Khan, J., Lanki, T., Ljungman, P. L. S., Mattisson, K., Molnar, P., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Oudin, A., Overvad, K., Petersen, S. B., . . . Sorensen, M. (2022). Occupational noise exposure and risk of incident stroke: A pooled study of five Scandinavian cohorts. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 79(9), 594–601. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2021-108053
van Kempen, E., & Babisch, W. (2012). The quantitative relationship between road traffic noise and hypertension: A meta-analysis. Journal of Hypertension, 30(6), 1075–1086. https://doi.org/10.1097/HJH.0b013e328352ac54
van Kempen, E., Casas, M., Pershagen, G., & Foraster, M. (2018). WHO environmental noise guidelines for the European region: A systematic review on environmental noise and cardiovascular and metabolic effects: A summary. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(2), 379. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15020379
Vienneau, D., Saucy, A., Schäffer, B., Flückiger, B., Tangermann, L., Stafoggia, M., Wunderli, J. M., & Röösli, M. (2022). Transportation noise exposure and cardiovascular mortality: 15 years of follow-up in a nationwide prospective cohort in Switzerland. Environment International, 158, 106974. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.106974
Wang, H., Sun, D., Wang, B., Gao, D., Zhou, Y., Wang, N., & Zhu, B. (2020). Association between noise exposure and diabetes: Meta-analysis. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 27(29), 36085–36090. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09826-6
Weihofen, V. M., Hegewald, J., Euler, U., Schlattmann, P., Zeeb, H., & Seidler, A. (2019). Aircraft noise and the risk of stroke. Deutsches Ärzteblatt International, 116(14), 237–244. https://doi.org/10.3238/arztebl.2019.0237
Wicki, B., Schäffer, B., Wunderli, J. M., Müller, T. J., Pervilhac, C., Röösli, M., & Vienneau, D. (2023). Suicide and transportation noise: A prospective cohort study from Switzerland. Environmental Health Perspectives, 131(3), 037013. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11587
Xu, K., Xu, B., Gu, J., Wang, X., Yu, D., & Chen, Y. (2023). Intrinsic mechanism and pharmacologic treatments of noise-induced hearing loss. Theranostics, 13(11), 3524–3549. https://doi.org/10.7150/thno.83383
Yankoty, L. I., Gamache, P., Plante, C., Goudreau, S., Blais, C., Perron, S., Fournier, M., Ragettli, M. S., Hatzopoulou, M., Liu, Y., & Smargiassi, A. (2022). Relationships between long-term residential exposure to total environmental noise and stroke incidence. Noise & Health, 24(113), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.4103/nah.nah_34_21
Zare Sakhvidi, M. J., Zare Sakhvidi, F., Mehrparvar, A. H., Foraster, M., & Dadvand, P. (2018). Association between noise exposure and diabetes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Environmental Research, 166, 647–657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2018.05.011
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Jędrzej Wojciechowski, Natalia Ostruszka, Julia Pilecka, Sabina Kolawa, Maria Marusińska, Michał Karpinski, Wiktoria Czyż, Wojciech Markiewicz, Arnold Borowiec, Michał Parzniewski
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
All articles are published in open-access and licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). Hence, authors retain copyright to the content of the articles.
CC BY 4.0 License allows content to be copied, adapted, displayed, distributed, re-published or otherwise re-used for any purpose including for adaptation and commercial use provided the content is attributed.
How to Cite
